Consumer Behaviour, 7e (Solomon) Chapter 6 Personality, Lifestyles, and Values 1) ________ may be thought of as a person’s unique psychological makeup and how these features consistently influence the way that person will respond to his or her environment.
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 150 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-01 Understand that a consumer’s personality can influence the way he or she responds to marketing stimuli. 2) Hannah was embarrassed when her friends teased her about dancing on a table on Friday night. She tried to tell her friends that she is really quite introverted and shy. Her friends observed that Hannah does not appear shy when she is out on a weekend evening. Which of the following statements about personality is most applicable in understanding Hannah?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 150 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-01 Understand that a consumer’s personality can influence the way he or she responds to marketing stimuli. 3) Psychological approaches to the concept of personality in the early part of the twentieth century were based on:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-01 Understand that a consumer’s personality can influence the way he or she responds to marketing stimuli. 4) Personality refers to a person’s unique psychological makeup, thought by some consistently to influence the way a person behaves. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 150 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-01 Understand that a consumer’s personality can influence the way he or she responds to marketing stimuli. 5) Some current theorists say that people do not exhibit a consistent personality across different situations; they argue that the personality construct is merely a convenient way to think about other people. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 150 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-01 Understand that a consumer’s personality can influence the way he or she responds to marketing stimuli. 6) What is personality? Answer: Personality is a person’s unique psychological makeup, which consistently influences the way the person responds to his or her environment. Type: ES Page Ref: 150 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-01 Understand that a consumer’s personality can influence the way he or she responds to marketing stimuli. 7) The three Freudian symbolic self systems are the:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 8) In Freudian theory, the ________ is that part of the mind guided by the primary desire to maximize pleasure and avoid pain.
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 9) In Freudian theory, the system that acts as a person’s conscience is the:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 10) The “fight between temptation and virtue” in the mind is mediated by the:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 11) A child goes into a store, sees a Caramilk bar, and wants it right away. Freudian theory would say that this is representative of the:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 12) Andre would just love to have the cream puff that he sees through a bakery window, but he resists the urge and keeps on walking. Freudian theory would say that his resistance is representative of the:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 13) Today most applications of Freudian theory in marketing are related to:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 152 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 14) The theories of ________ highlight the potential importance of unconscious motives underlying purchases.
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 15) In the 1950s, a perspective called ________ attempted to use Freudian ideas to understand the deeper meanings of products and advertisements.
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 152 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 16) A basic assumption of motivational research is:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 152 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 17) Many researchers believe that it is wrong to use motivational research, largely based on Freudian theories, to study customers. Why?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 152 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 18) The ad agency developed a marketing campaign for ice cream that placed heavy emphasis on the unconscious motive of security. The ad was designed to make adults feel that they were well-loved children again. The agency drew on the findings of:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 153 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 19) According to motivational research on consumption, when Carol wears long white gloves with her evening gown and removes them, she is following which of the following motives?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 153 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 20) When Cathy goes shopping, she tends to buy well-known brands, such as Kellogg’s. According to Horney’s research, she can be described as:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 154 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 21) Who was instrumental in advancing the idea that much of human behaviour could be understood by knowing how motivation is related to the feeling of inferiority?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 154 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 22) Frank Simms has decided to use Yoda (i.e., Star Wars wise man character) to promote a new model of a notebook computer. Frank knows that many marketing messages use characters to convince people about the merits of products. Frank has decided to use the technique to his advantage. Upon which of the following psychologist’s ideas has Frank based his advertising strategy?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 154 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 23) The id is essentially a person’s conscience. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 24) Samantha is studying psychology. During her studies, she makes a conclusion based on what she has read about Freudian theory. Her conclusion is that the ego is a mediator between temptation and virtue. Is her conclusion true or false? Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 151 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 25) Freudian theory implies that consumers cannot tell us their true motivations for buying a product. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 26) A key strength of motivational research is that it does not rely on Freudian theory. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 152 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 27) The theorist Jung believed that we are a product of past experiences. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 154 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 28) Explain the Freudian concept of the id. Answer: The id is the component of the self that is entirely oriented toward immediate gratification—it is the “party animal” of the mind. It operates according to the pleasure principle: Behaviour is guided by the primary desire to maximize pleasure and avoid pain. The id is selfish and illogical. It directs a person’s psychic energy toward pleasurable acts without regard for any possible consequences. Type: ES Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 29) Explain the Freudian concept of the superego. Answer: The superego is the counterweight to the id. This system is essentially the person’s conscience. It internalizes society’s rules and works to prevent the id from seeking selfish gratification. Type: ES Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 30) Explain the Freudian concept of the ego. Answer: The ego is the system that mediates between the id and the superego. It is, in a way, a referee in the fight between temptation and virtue. The ego tries to balance these two opposing forces according to the reality principle. It finds ways to gratify the id that will be acceptable to the outside world. These conflicts occur on an unconscious level, so the person is not necessarily aware of the underlying reasons for behaviour. Type: ES Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 31) What are the implications of Freud’s notion of the unconscious motive? Answer: The implication is that consumers cannot necessarily tell us their true motivations for choosing a product, even if we can devise a sensitive way to ask them directly. Type: ES Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 32) Identify and define the three aspects of the self-system according to Freudian psychology. Answer: The id is the component of the self that is entirely oriented toward immediate gratification—it is the “party animal” of the mind. It operates according to the pleasure principle: Behaviour is guided by the primary desire to maximize pleasure and avoid pain. The id is selfish and illogical. It directs a person’s psychic energy toward pleasurable acts without regard for any possible consequences. The superego is the counterweight to the id. This system is essentially the person’s conscience. It internalizes society’s rules and works to prevent the id from seeking selfish gratification. Finally, the ego is the system that mediates between the id and the superego. It is, in a way, a referee in the fight between temptation and virtue. The ego tries to balance these two opposing forces according to the reality principle. It finds ways to gratify the id that will be acceptable to the outside world. These conflicts occur on an unconscious level, so the person is not necessarily aware of the underlying reasons for behaviour Type: ES Page Ref: 151 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 33) What is motivational research? Answer: Motivational research is largely based on psychoanalytic (Freudian) interpretations, with a heavy emphasis on unconscious motives. The basic assumption is that socially unacceptable needs are channelled into acceptable outlets. Motivational research relies on in-depth interviews with individual consumers. Instead of asking many consumers a few general questions about product usage and combining these responses with those of many other consumers in a representative statistical sample, this technique uses relatively few consumers but probes deeply into each person’s purchase motivations. An in-depth interview might take several hours and is based on the assumption that the respondent cannot immediately articulate his or her latent, or underlying, motives; these can be derived only after meticulous questioning and interpretation on the part of a carefully trained interviewer. Type: ES Page Ref: 152 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 34) Explain Jung’s notion of the collective unconscious. Answer: Jung believed that people are shaped by the cumulative experiences of past generations. A central part of his perspective was an emphasis on what Jung called the collective unconscious, which is a storehouse of memories inherited from our ancestral past. For example, Jung would argue that many people are afraid of the dark because their distant ancestors had good reason to exhibit this fear. These shared memories create archetypes, or universally shared ideas and behaviour patterns. Archetypes involve themes, such as birth, death, or the devil, that appear frequently in myths, stories, and dreams. Type: ES Page Ref: 154 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 35) Explain the Freudian system of personality as it might apply to the behaviour of someone who is out with friends drinking. Answer: Sigmund Freud developed the idea that much of one’s adult personality stems from a fundamental conflict between a person’s desire to gratify his or her physical needs and the necessity to function as a responsible member of society. This struggle is carried out in the mind among three systems. The id is entirely oriented toward immediate gratification—it is the “party animal” of the mind. It operates according to the pleasure principle. It tries to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The superego is the counterweight to the id. This system is essentially the person’s conscience. It internalizes society’s rules and works to prevent the id from seeking selfish gratification. The id would like another drink, but the superego reminds the customer that she needs to drive home safely. Finally, the ego is the system that mediates between the id and the superego. It is in a way a referee in the fight between temptation and virtue. The ego tries to balance the opposing forces according to the reality principle. The ego attempts to find a way for another drink and still find a way to get home safely. Type: ES Page Ref: 151 Skill: Application Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 36) Describe the basic premise of motivational research and how it is conducted. Why has this type of research been criticized? Answer: The approach was largely based on psychoanalytic (Freudian) interpretations with a heavy emphasis on unconscious motives. A basic assumption is that socially unacceptable needs are channeled into acceptable outlets. Product use or avoidance is motivated by unconscious forces that are often determined in childhood. This form of research relies on in-depth interviews with individual consumers. Feedback: Motivational research has been criticized for two quite opposite reasons. Some feel it does not work at all, while others feel it works too well. On the one hand, social critics have reacted much the same way as they have reacted to subliminal perception studies. They have attacked this school of thought for giving advertisers the power to manipulate consumers. On the other hand, many consumer researchers feel the research has lacked sufficient rigour and validity, since interpretations are subjective and indirect. Because conclusions are based on the analyst’s own judgment and are derived from discussions with a small number of people, some researchers are dubious as to the degree to which these results can be generalized to a large market. In addition, because the original motivational researchers were heavily influenced by orthodox Freudian theory, their interpretations usually carried strong sexual overtones. This emphasis tends to overlook other plausible causes for behaviour. Type: ES Page Ref: 152 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 37) What were beliefs of the neo-Freudians? Are those beliefs relevant to today’s marketing? Answer: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality had emphasized the way people found socially acceptable ways to satisfy sexual desires. The neo-Freudians felt that an individual’s personality was more influenced by how relationships were handled. Karen Horney—Probably the most prominent of this group, this psychoanalyst proposed that people could be described as compliant (moving toward others), detached (moving away from others), or aggressive (moving against others). Some research has shown that Horney’s theory might be helpful in relating product preferences to these three types of people. Others—Alfred Adler proposed that many actions are motivated by people’s desire to overcome feelings of inferiority relative to others. Harry Stack Sullivan focused on how personality evolves to reduce anxiety in social relationships. Carl Jung—Jung was being groomed by Freud to become his successor but Jung could not accept Freud’s emphasis on sexual aspects of personality, and eventually the two dissolved their relationship. Jung’s approach to psychotherapy (called analytic psychology) emphasized both the individual’s development as a creative person (future) and one’s individual and racial history (past) in the formation of personality. A central part of Jung’s perspective was the collective unconscious, a storehouse of memories inherited from our ancestral past. These shared memories create archetypes, or universally shared ideas and behaviour patterns, e.g., themes involving birth, death, the devil. Advertisers do indeed invoke archetypes to link products with underlying meanings, using characters such as wizards, the old wise man, and the earth mother: e.g., “It’s not nice to fool with Mother Nature.” Type: ES Page Ref: 152-154 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-02 Understand how the various theories of personality differ. 38) James is a person who likes to think about things, especially when it comes to making selections among products. According to trait theory, James could be characterized as having a strong:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 154 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 39) When Linda saw the ad for the new and improved Swiffer mop, she rushed out and bought one. She can be considered to have the trait of:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 154 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 40) Consumers who possess a high need for cognition:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 154, 158 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 41) Jayleen prefers to shop at independent fashion and clothing stores where the products are original, one-of-a-kind items that are only available for a short time period. She is likely high in the trait of:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 157 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 42) Consumers high in public self-consciousness are likely to:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 156-157 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 43) Julianne purchases clothing and cosmetics in order to convey a positive image of her self to others. She is high in the trait of:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 156-157 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 44) Meg finds out that all of the people she knows will be wearing jeans to a party. Knowing this, she decides to wear a skirt. This demonstrates Meg’s:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 157 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 45) Nick is redesigning an advertisement after his consultant told him the marketing segment for his insurance products was high in idiocentrics. Which of the following would be how to attract such a segment?
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 156 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 46) Trait theory refers to those subjective components of the self (“traits”) that intuitively “make sense” even though they cannot be measured quantitatively. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 154 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 47) Someone characterized as high in public self-consciousness is likely to enjoy engaging in effortful cognitive activity. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 156-157 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 48) Idiocentrics are more interested in other cultures and travelling than allocentrics. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 156 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 49) Guita is very aware of her publicly displayed self-image. She purchases clothing and cosmetics to convey a positive image of her self to others. Describe which trait she is likely high on. Answer: She is likely high in public self-consciousness. Consumers high in public self-consciousness are more likely to make choices that allow them to present a positive view of the self to others. For instance, consumers high in public self-consciousness are more likely to avoid products with negative associations (e.g., men won’t choose a steak called the “ladies’ cut” and are more likely to donate to a charity in public settings if it looks like they are doing it for more altruistic, other-focused reasons). Type: ES Page Ref: 156-157 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 50) What is meant by the term “need for uniqueness”? Answer: Need for uniqueness is a trait. Those high in need for uniqueness tend to be more likely to desire unique, counter-normative, or unconventional options when a consumption situation activates this need. One study examined how having one’s product choice mimicked or copied by another person can threaten this need for uniqueness. Have you ever shown up to a party to find that another guest is wearing the same thing as you? Would it be worse if it were your best friend wearing the identical outfit, or would it be worse if it were someone you didn’t know? It turns out that consumers who were high in need for uniqueness, and who were copied by someone similar to them, were most upset about the uniqueness violation—they were most willing to dispose of, trade in, or alter their choice when they were copied. Type: ES Page Ref: 156-157 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 51) Albert really enjoys effortful cognitive activity and when he goes on a plane ride he purchases activity books containing challenging analogical and mathematical puzzles to pass the time. What would trait theory say about Albert? Answer: Albert is likely high in the trait of need for cognition. Consumers who are high in need for cognition enjoy thinking extensively about things like products and their attributes. Those low in need for cognition are more like to take shortcuts or rely on their feelings when making decisions, as opposed to thinking carefully. Type: ES Page Ref: 158 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 52) Could trait theory be used as a basis for market segmentation? Explain why or why not, using two traits to illustrate support for your position. Answer: Yes, it could. This would be a form of psychographic segmentation, reaching beyond demographics. Manufacturers of current technology products would certainly find degree of innovativeness useful. Also, most companies would find materialism useful when combined with other segmentation variables. Type: ES Page Ref: 154, 156-157 Skill: Application Objective: L6-03 Understand that trait theory proposes that various consumer characteristics can be measured and used to predict outcomes. 53) The automobile company Jaguar uses the cat as its logo to depict the same traits as the cat: solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush predator at the top of the food chain. This is an example of:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 159 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 54) Old Spice created a series of commercials with a likeable brand representative and created several YouTube spots to help viewers get to know the man behind the brand. This was to enhance:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 159 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 55) According to the text, the product symbol that is given credit for being the first “brand personality” (introduced in 1886) was:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 158 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 56) The Apple brand is synonymous with a visual of an apple with a leaf on the stem and a bite taken out of it. Over the years they have been able to connect the image with what the brand stands for–acquiring knowledge. It has built:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 159 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 57) A certain brand of DVD player is priced at the high end of the market and is only sold in limited locations at very high-end stores. This implies which personality trait inferences?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 160 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 58) Disney as a brand can be symbolized with three circles forming a shape that resembles a mouse’s head with ears; Mickey Mouse. It has become such an obsession with many that the company has many “hidden” Mickey’s throughout its theme parks that visitors seek out, post, tweet, and blog about for hours on end. This is an example of a successful use of:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 160 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 59) The second level of animism occurs when objects become ________; that is, they take on human characteristics.
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 160 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 60) Although a brand’s personality can be very difficult to change, marketers can accomplish this to certain extent by ________ their product.
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 161 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 61) Jennifer is a marketing manager for a clothing manufacturer. She wants to have two product lines: one targeted at price-sensitive consumers and one targeted at affluent consumers. To differentiate the two brands, she intends to create distinct brand personalities. Keith argues this is dangerous because a company cannot have two brands with different personalities. Keith is right. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 159-160 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 62) The Michelin Man is an example of anthropomorphism. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 160 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 63) An ardent golfer, Samuel buys the products promoted by a celebrity golfer. He feels the spirit of the golfer is available through the brand. This is the highest order of animism. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 159-160 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 64) Describe the concepts of brand personality and brand equity and how they are related. Answer: A brand personality is the set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a person. Brand equity refers to the extent to which a consumer holds strong, favourable, and unique associations with a brand in memory. Brand personality is related in that it significantly contributes to the manner in which an individual perceives a brand, thus helping to create brand equity. Type: ES Page Ref: 160 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 65) Dos Equis has created a brand personality around “The Most Interesting Man in the World.” Explain what type of brand personality this is creating. Answer: This is an example of level 1 animism. In the highest order of animism, the object is associated with a human individual—as is sometimes the case for spokespersons in advertising. This strategy allows the consumer to feel that the spirit of the celebrity or endorser is available through the brand. Type: ES Page Ref: 160 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 66) Serena loves to eat canned corn, especially because of the Jolly Green Giant spokescharacter. What aspect of brand personality is being used in this example? Answer: The creation and communication of a distinctive brand personality is one of the primary ways marketers can make a product stand out from the competition and inspire years of loyalty to it. This process can be understood in terms of animism, the practice found in many cultures whereby inanimate objects are given qualities that make them somehow alive. Animism is in some cases a part of a religion: sacred objects, animals, or places are believed to have magical qualities or to contain the spirits of ancestors. In our society these objects may be “worshipped” in the sense that they are believed to impart desirable qualities to the owner, or they may in a sense become so important to a person that they can be viewed as a “friend.” Objects are anthropomorphized–given human characteristics. A cartoon character or mythical creation may be treated as if it were a person, and even assumed to have human feelings. Think about such familiar spokes characters as the Jolly Green Giant or the Michelin Man. Grey Advertising, in research for its client Sprint Business Services, found that when customers were asked to imagine long-distance carriers as animals, they envisioned AT&T as a lion, MCI as a snake, and Sprint as a puma. Grey used these results to position Sprint as a company that could “help you do more business” rather than taking the more aggressive approach of its competitors. Type: ES Page Ref: 160 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 67) Describe the concepts of brand personality and brand equity and how they are related. Answer: A brand personality is the set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a person. Brand equity refers to the extent to which a consumer holds strong, favourable, and unique associations with a brand in memory. Brand personality is related in that it significant contributes to the manner in which an individual perceives a brand, thus helping to create brand equity. Type: ES Page Ref: 159 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 68) Parkas, Inc. is a manufacturer of top quality jackets and parkas, similar to Columbia sportswear. However, Columbia is perceived as being much more durable and fashionable, and appeals to a younger demographic. This is a segment that Parkas Inc. would like to improve in. What must Parkas Inc. do to improve its standing? Answer: Answers may vary. It must reposition its brand and work to changes its “personality.” If it wants to move closer to Columbia’s market position, it may want to offer some of the imagery/appeal that makes Columbia more successful. At the same time, Parkas Inc. wants to maintain its own distinct identity and remain very recognizable and different from Columbia. Outdoor ads with younger models in rugged situations could be portrayed, with “aftermath” scenarios about how durable and fashionable the product still looks. Also, testimonials could be another way to help the repositioning. Type: ES Page Ref: 161 Skill: Application Objective: L6-04 Understand that marketers can use a variety of techniques to create “brand personality.” 69) ________ refers to a pattern of consumption reflecting a person’s choices of how he or she spends time and money.
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 163 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 70) Because a goal of lifestyle marketing is to allow consumers to pursue their chosen ways of enjoying their lives and expressing their social identities, a key aspect of this strategy is to:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 166 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 71) IKEA sets up their outlets with various room designs for each room use. For example, there could be ten completely different kitchens on display, each one having its own look with cupboards, counters, appliances, and dishes. This is an example of:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 164-165 Skill: Application Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 72) Sets of different products with symbolic meanings that are related are called:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 166 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 73) When interior designers integrate products from many different categories (such as appliances, furnishings, and even artwork) into a unified whole or a specific decorating style, they are relying upon the principle of:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 166-167 Skill: Application Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 74) Jane and Julie are identical twins. They look alike and have almost identical personalities. They both live in the same apartment. By definition, they would both have the same lifestyle. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 163 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 75) Luis and his brother won a lottery and shared the money equally. Luis went on a trip around the world. His brother bought an expensive racing boat. This difference reflects a difference in lifestyle. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 163 Skill: Application Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 76) Ten years ago, Darren quenched his thirst with a cola. Today he grabs a bottle of sparkling mineral water. This is an example of how his deep-seated values have changed over time. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 165 Skill: Application Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 77) It is unlikely that lifestyles change once they are set. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 165 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 78) Product complementarity occurs when the symbolic meanings of different products are related to each other. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 165 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 79) Explain the concept of lifestyle and why it is important to marketers. Answer: Lifestyle refers to a pattern of consumption reflecting a person’s choices of how he or she spends time and money. Many of the factors already discussed in this book, such as a person’s self-concept, ethnicity, and social class, are used as “raw ingredients” to fashion a unique lifestyle. In an economic sense, a person’s lifestyle represents the way he or she has elected to allocate income both to different products and services and to specific alternatives within these categories. Other somewhat similar distinctions have been made to describe consumers in terms of their broad patterns of consumption. For example, consumers can be distinguished by their social class, which can be determined by the proportion of expenditures on food, advanced technology, or such information-intensive goods as entertainment and education. Type: ES Page Ref: 163 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 80) Kevin and his brother won a lottery and shared the money equally. Kevin went on a trip around the world. His brother bought an expensive racing boat. Discuss what factor likely led to this difference in choice. Answer: This difference reflects a difference in lifestyle choices. Lifestyle refers to a pattern of consumption reflecting a person’s choices of how he or she spends time and money. Many factors, such as a person’s self-concept, ethnicity, and social class, are used as “raw ingredients” to fashion a unique lifestyle. In an economic sense, one’s lifestyle represents the way one has elected to allocate income. We allocate different proportions of our income to different products and services as well as to specific brand alternatives within these categories. A person’s choice of goods and services indeed makes a statement about who that person is and about the types of people with whom that person desires to identify—and even about those he or she wishes to avoid. Type: ES Page Ref: 163 Skill: Application Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 81) You are a personal image designer. The goal of your job is to provide people with product recommendations for create a positive image. A man comes to you saying he wants a consumption constellation that reflects a more affluent lifestyle. What theory does your job rely on and what do you recommend? Answer: As a personal image designer, your job relies on the theory of product complementarity, which occurs when symbolic meanings of different products are related to each other. These sets of products, termed “consumption constellations,” are used by consumers to define, communicate, and perform social roles. There are many recommendations that can be made, but they should include products that are luxurious, such as a Mercedes-Benz and a Rolex watch. Type: ES Page Ref: 166-167 Skill: Application Objective: L6-05 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to many marketing strategies. 82) The use of psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors combined with demographic information to identify potential markets is called:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 167 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 83) Which of the following statements about psychographics is true?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 167 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 84) AIO statements consist of consumer responses identifying their:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 168 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 85) Shopping, club memberships, sports, and social events are all illustrations of which of the following lifestyle dimensions?
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 169 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 86) Norma Shields is a researcher investigating lifestyles of the rich and famous. This week she is examining her target audience’s views on food, the media, fashion, and recreation. Which of the AIO categories does Norma seem to be working on now?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 169 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 87) A psychographic study of men aged 18-24 who drink and drive found four different groups:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 170 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 88) The acronym VALS stands for:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 171 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 89) Genevieve’s main focus at the moment is her career, choosing a government position over a private-sector company or entrepreneurial endeavour. According to the VALS typology, she can fit into which of the following groups?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 172 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 90) Holding down a well-paid job, Jeremy is not short of resources, but he is impulsive and always seeking risky activities, such as trying to climb to the summit of Everest. According to the VALS typology, he can fit into which of the following groups?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 172 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 91) Doug comes from a family background where a strong ethical code was developed at an early age. He has little money, but he still tends to favour brands that are tried and true. According to the VALS typology, he can fit into which of the following groups?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 172 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 92) Erin likes to be self-sufficient. She grows her own vegetables, mows her own lawn, does her own repairs, and even painted her house. According to the VALS typology, she can fit into in which of the following groups?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 172 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 93) Conrad, a student on scholarship at a prestigious university, constantly meets with his professors to have a one-on-one evaluation of how his performance is in each class. Conrad is a/n:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 172 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 94) The study of demographics allows us to describe who buys, but psychographics allows us to understand why they do. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 167 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 95) VALS divides people into eight groups according to both psychological characteristics and resources, which include such factors as income, education, energy levels, and eagerness to buy. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 171-172 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 96) Beth is highly motivated to advance her career, but does not like uncertainty. She is also highly concerned about the approval of others. According to the VALS system, Beth would most likely be categorized as a Striver. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 171-172 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 97) Explain the concept of psychographics and why this is important to marketers. Answer: Psychographics involve the “use of psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors…to determine how the market is segmented by the propensity of groups within the market—and their reasons—to make a particular decision about a product, person, ideology, or otherwise hold an attitude or use a medium.” Psychographics can be a powerful tool for segmenting and understanding the market. Type: ES Page Ref: 167 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 98) What do marketers mean by the term “AIOs”? Answer: Most contemporary psychographic research attempts to group consumers according to some combination of three categories of variables–activities, interests, and opinions–known as AIOs. Using data from large samples, marketers create profiles of customers who resemble one another in their activities and patterns of product usage. Type: ES Page Ref: 168 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 99) Explain geodemography and how it relates to single-source data. Answer: Geodemography refers to those analytical techniques that combine data on consumer expenditures and other socio-economic factors with geographic information about the area in which people live, in order to identify consumers who share common consumption patterns. Geodemography is based on the assumption that “birds of a feather flock together.” The idea is that like-minded people with similar tastes and needs locate near one another. Knowing the location of these groups makes it more viable for marketers to reach them, e.g., through direct mailings. To obtain a clearer picture of the Canadian consumer, the geographic information is combined with other data, such as single-source data. Single-source data is the compilation of information that includes different aspects of consumption and demographic data for a common consumer segment. When the information about a person’s actual purchasing history is combined with the geodemographic data, marketers can determine which marketing strategies these consumers respond to or ignore. Such comprehensive strategies enable marketers to test the impact of changes in such areas as advertising, pricing, shelf-placement promotions, etc. on consumer behaviour patterns. Type: ES Page Ref: 172 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 100) There are eight categories listed in the VALS system. List and briefly describe four of the categories. Answer: Below is a complete answer for all eight categories. VALS divides people into eight groups according to both psychological characteristics and resources, which include such factors as income, education, energy levels, and eagerness to buy. In the VALS structure, groups are arranged vertically by resources and horizontally by self-orientation. The top group is called innovators, who are successful consumers with many resources. This group is concerned with social issues and is open to change. The next three groups also have sufficient resources but differ in their outlooks on life. ∙ Thinkers are satisfied, reflective, and comfortable. They tend to be practical and value functionality. ∙ Achievers are career-oriented and prefer predictability over risk or self-discovery. ∙ Experiencers are impulsive and young and enjoy offbeat or risky experiences. The next three groups have fewer resources: ∙ Believers have strong principles and favour proven brands. ∙ Strivers are like achievers but with fewer resources. They are very concerned about the approval of others. ∙ Makers are action-oriented and tend to focus their energies on self-sufficiency. They will often be found working on their cars, canning their own vegetables, or building their own houses. Finally comes the group with the fewest resources: ∙ Survivors are at the bottom of the ladder. They are most concerned with meeting the needs of the moment. Type: ES Page Ref: 171-172 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 101) Alison is a go-getting lawyer who is very career-oriented and makes a high salary. Using the VALS framework, how would you describe Alison? Answer: According the VALS system, Alison is likely classified as an achiever. Achievers are career-oriented and prefer predictability over risk or self-discovery. Type: ES Page Ref: 171-172 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 102) Your research colleague Gary says, “I’ve heard about this new term, psychographics. Do you know what this means? What forms of psychographic studies are there?” What do you say? Answer: Psychographics involves the “use of psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors…to determine how the market is segmented by the propensity of groups within the market—and their reasons—to make a particular decision about a product, person, ideology, or otherwise hold an attitude or use a medium.” Psychographic studies can take several different forms:
Type: ES Page Ref: 167-168 Skill: Application Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 103) How are psychographics distinct from demographics, and why are psychographics necessary to better understand marketing and consumer behaviour? Answer: Demographics are typically measures that are easily quantified and are readily observable. A person’s income, gender, age, ethnicity, etc. are all examples of demographic variables. Psychographics are composed of psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors and include attitudes, interests, opinions, and lifestyles. Psychographics are important because they often do a good job of explaining why and predicting when consumers will buy certain products. Students can draw on different examples, such as Lululemon, which draws upon consumer psychographics to connect with their customers. Type: ES Page Ref: 167 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-06 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple demographics to help marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. 104) Mary’s possessions play a central role in her life and influence her value systems. Mary can be considered as having the trait of:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 176 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 105) The List of Values (LOV) scale identifies:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 174 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 106) A ________ is a belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite.
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 172 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 107) Jill is a vegetarian because of health reasons and Robert is a vegetarian because of animal cruelty concerns. While both may share the same consumption patterns, they differ in what fundamental aspect?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 173 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 108) Our beliefs are taught to us by our parents, friends, and teachers. In other words, we learn them from:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 173 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 109) When Naomi went to teach English in Taiwan, it took her a long time to become:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 173 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 110) The process of learning the beliefs and behaviours that are endorsed by one’s own culture is called:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 173 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 111) Within each culture, there are usually beliefs or a set of underlying goals most people agree are important. Values that can be thought of as desired end states or goals for both individuals and their society are termed:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 174 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 112) Values that specify the actions needed to achieve some higher-order value are termed:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 174 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 113) A household cleaner that advertises its durability is appealing to which type of value?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 174 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 114) Consumers are beginning to place a high value on buying green brands and products from green companies. This shift towards personal and global health has been termed by some researchers as:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 174 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 115) Ease of use and durability are examples of:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 174 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 116) The Rokeach Value Survey is intended to measure:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 174 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 117) What are values? Why are values of interest to marketers? Answer: A value is a belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite. Many people avidly pursue products and services that will make them look young, believing that this is preferable to appearing old. A person’s set of values plays a very important role in his or her consumption activities, since many products and services are purchased because they will (it is believed) help attain a value-related goal. Values often underlie or sit at the heart of an individual’s lifestyle and psychographic profile. Values are central to what makes a consumer distinct in their consumption and in society. Type: ES Page Ref: 172-173 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 118) Jules is a consumer in the segment sometimes labelled “lifestyles of health and sustainability.” Discuss what his typical day might include and, from a marketing perspective, what type of products he may be interested in. Answer: LOHAS, an acronym for “lifestyles of health and sustainability” is a label that refers to people such as Jules who worry about the environment, want products to be produced in a sustainable way, and spend money to advance what they see as their personal development and potential. So-called “Lohasians” (others refer to this segment as cultural creatives) represent a great market for products such as organic foods, energy-efficient appliances, and hybrid cars as well as alternative medicine, yoga tapes, and ecotourism. Jules will likely spend his free time accessing these activities and supporting these products. Whereas in the past it was sufficient for companies to offer recyclable products, this new movement, of which Jules is a part, is creating a whole new vocabulary as consumers begin to “vote with their forks” by demanding food, fragrances, and other items that are hormone-free, locally grown, cage-free, don’t involve animal clones or animal testing, and are made without genetically modified ingredients (GMOs), just to name a few of consumers’ concerns and requirements. Type: ES Page Ref: 174-175 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 119) What is conscientious consumerism? Answer: The trend for consumers to focus on personal health is merging with a growing interest in global health. Some analysts call this new value conscientious consumerism. In a recent survey, 8 out of 10 consumers said they believe it’s important to buy green brands and products from green companies and that they’ll pay more to do so. In another survey conducted in 2009, 71 percent of consumers agreed that they avoid purchasing from companies whose practices they disagree with, and about half claim they tell others to either patronize or avoid certain products based on the manufacturer’s social and environmental practices. Type: ES Page Ref: 174 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 120) When asked why he spends so much money on clothing, gadgets, and his car, Andrew answers: “He who dies with most toys, wins.” Describe what value he is expressing. Answer: He is expressing the value of materialism. Although most people don’t literally worship material goods, “things” do play a central role in many people’s lives and can influence their value systems. Materialism refers to the importance people attach to worldly possessions, and the popular bumper sticker “He Who Dies with the Most Toys, Wins” is a comment on this philosophy. Type: ES Page Ref: 176 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 121) Discuss two different instruments that might be used to measure values, and explain why one may be preferable for marketing applications. Answer: Rokeach Value Survey and the List of Values (LOV) scale. The Rokeach Value Survey was devised by psychologist Milton Rokeach, who identified a set of terminal values, or desired end states, that apply (to various degrees) to many different cultures. His scale can be used to measure these values, and also includes a set of instrumental values, which comprise actions needed to achieve these terminal values. Although some evidence indicates that these global values do translate into product-specific preferences and differences in media usage, the Rokeach Value Survey has not been widely used by marketing researchers. An alternative is the List of Values (LOV) Scale, which was developed to isolate values with more direct-marketing applications. This instrument identifies nine consumer segments based on the values they endorse and relates each to differences in consumption behaviours. These segments include consumers who place a priority on such values as a sense of belonging, excitement, warm relationships with others, and security. For example, people who endorse the value of a sense of belonging are more likely to read Reader’s Digest and TV Guide, drink and entertain frequently, prefer group activities, and be older than are people who do not endorse this value as highly. In contrast, those who endorse the value of excitement prefer Wallpaper and are younger than those who do not. Type: ES Page Ref: 174 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 122) At Whole Foods supermarket in Seattle, shoppers take part in a “singles” night the first Friday of every month. Identify and describe the variable this program is using to target consumers. Answer: This would be a good illustration of lifestyle marketing. Lifestyle refers to a pattern of consumption reflecting a person’s choices of how he or she spends time and money. Many factors, such as a person’s self-concept, ethnicity, and social class, are used as “raw ingredients” to fashion a unique lifestyle. In an economic sense, a person’s lifestyle represents the way he or she has elected to allocate income both to different products and services and to specific alternatives within these categories. A lifestyle marketing perspective recognizes that people sort themselves into groups on the basis of the things they like to do, how they like to spend their leisure time, and how they choose to spend their disposable income. These choices, in turn, create opportunities for market-segmentation strategies that recognize the potency of a consumer’s chosen lifestyle in determining both the types of products purchased and the specific brands more likely to appeal to a designated lifestyle segment. Type: ES Page Ref: 163 Skill: Application Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. 123) What is materialism? What are some of the negative consequences of materialism? Answer: Materialism refers to the importance people attach to worldly possessions. Many consumers now energetically seek “the good life,” which abounds in material comforts. Most young people can’t imagine a life without cell phones, iPods, and other comforts. In fact, one way to think about marketing is as a system that provides a certain standard of living to consumers. Materialistic values tend to emphasize the well-being of the individual versus the group, which may conflict with family or religious values. That conflict may help to explain why people with highly material values tend to be less happy. More recent research suggests that materialism might be associated with other negative outcomes. For example, youth who were more materialistic reported lower liking for school and got poorer grades. Type: ES Page Ref: 177-178 Skill: Concept Objective: L6-07 Understand that every culture has a set of core values that it imparts to its members. Consumer Behaviour, 7e (Solomon) Chapter 7 Attitudes 1) A lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, and issues is a(n):
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 183 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-01 Understand that it is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. 2) Ruby believes that ice cream is fattening and therefore tries to avoid the temptation of eating it. Which of the following best describes the relationship between Ruby and ice cream?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 183 Skill: Application Objective: L7-01 Understand that it is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. 3) Craig complained to his friend Jess that a class was too hard and he believed that the teacher was not being fair with his grading standards. Jess replied, “Craig, you really have an attitude problem.” What is the relationship between the manner in which the term attitude is used in common conversation and the how it is defined in consumer behaviour?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 183 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-01 Understand that it is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. 4) Which of the following best expresses what marketers mean by attitude?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 183 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-01 Understand that it is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. 5) Janet will only drink Earl Grey tea. This tea is her attitude object. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 183 Skill: Application Objective: L7-01 Understand that it is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. 6) A teenager sassed his father. The father looked at his teenage son and remarked, “I don’t like your attitude.” How is this use of the term attitude both similar and dissimilar to how the term is utilized in studying consumer behaviours? Answer: An attitude is a lasting, general evaluation of people toward an attitude object. – The common usage of attitude is very close to how it is thought of in scientific studies of consumer behaviour. The teenager’s attitude resulted from a general evaluation of his father or of a certain event that provoked the verbal exchange. – The teenager’s behaviour probably resulted from a temporary situation. His true attitudes probably would not create this negative interaction. The father may also have mistakenly utilized the term in that he may not have realized that multiple attitudes can exist which do not have to be logically consistent with each other. His son probably has many attitudes. Type: ES Page Ref: 183 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-01 Understand that it is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. 7) The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed by:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 183 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 8) According to the functional theory of attitudes, the ________ function is addressed by ads that stress straightforward product benefits.
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 184 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 9) Sarah sees an ad for a popular deodorant. In the ad, a young girl is embarrassed on prom night because of a perspiration stain on her pink prom dress. The punch line of the ad says, “Is yours strong enough when you really need it?” Sarah thinks about the brand she uses, an upcoming date with a new guy, and decides to switch to the advertised brand. Which of the following attitude functions most closely matches the decision made by Sarah?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 184 Skill: Application Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 10) A primary application of functional theory to the strategic positioning of products is:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 185 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 11) Julia’s favourite magazines are Vogue and Harper’s Bazaar; she loves French food, travel, and social media. Which attitude function describes her motives?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 184 Skill: Application Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 12) Which of the following attitude functions is highly relevant to lifestyle analyses?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 184 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 13) According to the functional theory of attitudes, attitudes are determined by a person’s motives. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 183 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 14) A cola drink is preferred by a segment of cola drinkers, but the same segment almost always picks another cola brand in blind taste tests. The attitude formation for this product reflects the value-expressive function more than the utilitarian function. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 184 Skill: Application Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 15) If Lana wears red, flashy dresses because it says something about her lifestyle, then Lana is exhibiting the ego-defensive function of attitudes. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 184 Skill: Application Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 16) Describe the functional theory of attitudes. Answer: The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed by psychologist Daniel Katz to explain how attitudes facilitate social behaviour. According to this pragmatic approach, attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person; that is, they are determined by a person’s motives. Consumers who expect that they will need to deal with similar information at a future time will be more likely to start forming attitudes in anticipation of this event. Two people can each have the same attitude toward some object for very different reasons. As a result, it can be helpful for a marketer to know why an attitude is held before attempting to change it. The following are attitude functions identified by Katz: ∙ Utilitarian function: The utilitarian function is related to the basic principles of reward and punishment. We develop some of our attitudes toward products simply on the basis of whether these products provide pleasure or pain. If a person likes the taste of a cheeseburger, that person will develop a positive attitude toward cheeseburgers. Ads that stress straightforward product benefits (e.g., you should drink Diet Coke “just for the taste of it”) appeal to the utilitarian function. ∙ Value-expressive function: Attitudes that perform a value-expressive function express the consumer’s central values or self-concept. A person forms a product attitude not because of its objective benefits, but because of what the product says about him or her as a person (“What sort of man rides a Harley?”). Value-expressive attitudes are highly relevant to lifestyle analyses, where consumers cultivate a cluster of activities, interests, and opinions to express a particular social identity. ∙ Ego-defensive function: Attitudes that are formed to protect the person, either from external threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive function. Products that promise to help a man project a rugged, manly image may be appealing to his insecurities about his masculinity. ∙ Knowledge function: Some attitudes are formed as the result of a need for order, structure, or meaning. This need is often present when a person is in an ambiguous situation or is confronted with a new product (“Bayer wants you to know about pain relievers”). Type: ES Page Ref: 184 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 17) What does Katz mean by the “utilitarian function?” Answer: The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed by psychologist Daniel Katz to explain how attitudes facilitate social behaviour. According to this pragmatic approach, attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person; that is, they are determined by a person’s motives. Consumers who expect that they will need to deal with similar information at a future time will be more likely to start forming attitudes in anticipation of this event. The utilitarian function is related to the basic principles of reward and punishment. We develop some of our attitudes toward products simply on the basis of whether these products provide pleasure or pain. If a person likes the taste of a cheeseburger, that person will develop a positive attitude toward cheeseburgers. Ads that stress straightforward product benefits (e.g., you should drink Diet Coke “just for the taste of it”) appeal to the utilitarian function. Type: ES Page Ref: 183-184 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 18) Describe what Katz means by the term “value-expressive function.” Answer: The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed by psychologist Daniel Katz to explain how attitudes facilitate social behaviour. According to this pragmatic approach, attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person; that is, they are determined by a person’s motives. Consumers who expect that they will need to deal with similar information at a future time will be more likely to start forming attitudes in anticipation of this event. Attitudes that perform a value-expressive function express the consumer’s central values or self-concept. A person forms a product attitude not because of its objective benefits, but because of what the product says about him or her as a person (“What sort of man rides a Harley?”). Value-expressive attitudes are highly relevant to lifestyle analyses, where consumers cultivate a cluster of activities, interests, and opinions to express a particular social identity. Type: ES Page Ref: 183-184 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 19) Describe what Katz means by the term “ego-defensive function.” Answer: The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed by psychologist Daniel Katz to explain how attitudes facilitate social behaviour. According to this pragmatic approach, attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person; that is, they are determined by a person’s motives. Consumers who expect that they will need to deal with similar information at a future time will be more likely to start forming attitudes in anticipation of this event. ∙ Ego-defensive function: Attitudes that are formed to protect the person, either from external threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive function. Products that promise to help a man project a rugged, manly image may be appealing to his insecurities about his masculinity. Type: ES Page Ref: 183-184 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 20) Describe what Katz means by the term “knowledge function.” Answer: The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed by psychologist Daniel Katz to explain how attitudes facilitate social behaviour. According to this pragmatic approach, attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person; that is, they are determined by a person’s motives. Consumers who expect that they will need to deal with similar information at a future time will be more likely to start forming attitudes in anticipation of this event. ∙ Knowledge function: Some attitudes are formed as the result of a need for order, structure, or meaning. This need is often present when a person is in an ambiguous situation or is confronted with a new product (“Bayer wants you to know about pain relievers”). Type: ES Page Ref: 183-184 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 21) Josephine is a consumer who will form her attitude about her microwave using the low-involvement hierarchy of effects. What are the ramifications for an appliance company that deals with Josephine? What should they do about this type of customer? Answer: In the low-involvement hierarchy of effects, the consumer initially does not have a strong preference for one brand over another; he or she instead acts on the basis of limited knowledge and forms an evaluation after the fact. The attitude is likely to come about through behavioural learning, where the consumer’s choice is reinforced by good or bad experiences with the product after purchase. In this case, it implies that an attempt to cognitively communicate information about product attributes may be largely wasted. These types of consumers aren’t necessarily going to pay attention anyway; they are more likely to respond to simple stimulus-response connections when making purchase decisions. This type of consumer might respond well to jingles, eye-catching packaging, or a reward with purchase. Type: ES Page Ref: 186-187 Skill: Application Objective: L7-02 Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. 22) Jan went to pick up some breath mints at the local convenience store on the way home for work. There was an eye-catching point-of-purchase display for a new flavour of mints on the market. She grabbed a box and went to the cash register. Afterward, she thought they tasted fine. Which of the following schematics best represents Jan’s hierarchy of effects?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 187 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 23) Most researchers agree that an attitude has three components. In the ABC model of attitudes, they are:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 185 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 24) The concept that attempts to explain the relative impact of the three components of an attitude and the sequence of steps occurring en route to the formation of an attitude is called:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 186 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 25) Zajonc’s hierarchy of effects model involves:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 186 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 26) Bonnie is a wine connoisseur. She has spent a lot of time studying the various wines, visiting vineyards, and perfecting her palate. Her attitude can be described as being based on:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 186 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 27) Most researchers agree that an attitude is made up of ________ components.
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 185 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 28) Jeannette sought out lots of information, considered information carefully, and arrived at a thoughtful decision about her new home theatre system. The hierarchy exhibited here is:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 186 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 29) Marketing managers often reject the concept of low involvement by consumers in processing product or brand information because:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 186 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 30) Acme Company knows its product has little brand loyalty, and customers don’t have a strong preference for its product or the competitor’s. To develop a positive attitude in the market, Acme should concentrate first on the ________ their product.
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 187 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 31) Bill is watching a television show. When an advertisement comes on, he has a predisposition to respond to that advertisement in a favourable or unfavourable manner. This predisposition is referred to as a(n):
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 188 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 32) Coca-Cola’s campaign “open happiness” is attempting to utilize ________ by using smiling people drinking the product, and even having the brand name form a smile within the advertisement.
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 187 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 33) Are cognition and affect two separate elements of attitudes? Affective responses do not always require prior cognitions according to the position taken by the:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 187 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 34) Research has shown that at least three emotional dimensions have been identified in commercials. Two of these emotional dimensions are pleasure and arousal. What is the third emotional dimension?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 188 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 35) Simi is never quite sure which brand of gum to buy. She tries some, likes some, and rejects some. However, through a process of behavioural learning she does remember those brands that taste good and make her mouth feel fresh. The problem is that she cannot often remember the brands that are not so good and repeats purchasing mistakes. “Oh well,” says Simi, “gum buying is not that big of a deal anyway.” Which of the following hierarchies would most appropriately describe Simi’s situation?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 186 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 36) Affect refers to the way consumers feel about an attitude object. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 186 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 37) Behaviour, in the ABC model of attitudes, involves what a person actually does, not what he intends to do with regard to an attitude object. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 185 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 38) Jason believes that dressing formally (e.g., wearing a coat and tie) marks him as a man who is “dressed for success”; therefore, Jason dresses formally even in class or for casual occasions. Jason is basing this decision on the cognition part of the ABC model of attitudes. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 185 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 39) High involvement with a product decision is more likely to lead to brand loyalty than low involvement. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 186 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 40) A marketing message is a special type of an attitude object. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 188 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 41) The attention-catching ad for the newly launched healthy cereal from a well-respected food company is repeated numerous times on Ron’s favourite sports program. Ron’s Aad should be positive. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 188 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 42) Cindy is watching a television advertisement. The only elements that will influence Cindy’s attitude toward the advertisement are her attitude toward the advertiser and the mood evoked by the ad. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 188 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 43) Describe the ABC model of attitudes. Answer: An attitude has three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. Affect refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object. Behaviour, or conation, involves the person’s intentions to do something with regard to an attitude object (but, as will be discussed at a later point, an intention does not always result in an actual behaviour). Cognition refers to the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object. These three components of an attitude can be remembered as the ABC model of attitudes. Type: ES Page Ref: 185 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 44) Bethany has done a lot of research into which brand of dishwasher to purchase. After weighing the various pros and cons of the brands, she makes her choice. What type of involvement has Bethany displayed and what effect is it likely to have on her relationship with the dishwasher? Answer: This is an example of high involvement. When highly involved, a consumer approaches a product decision as a problem-solving process. First, he or she forms beliefs about a product by accumulating knowledge (beliefs) regarding relevant attributes. Next, the consumer evaluates these beliefs and forms a feeling about the product (affect). Finally, based on this evaluation, the consumer engages in a relevant behaviour, such as buying the product. This careful choice process often results in a type of brand loyalty. The consumer “bonds” with the product over time and is not easily persuaded to experiment with other brands. The standard learning hierarchy assumes that a consumer is highly involved in making a purchase decision. The person is motivated to seek out a lot of information, carefully weigh alternatives, and come to a thoughtful decision. Type: ES Page Ref: 186 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 45) John has a low involvement relationship with the bathroom tissue he buys. What can the manufacturer do to appeal to John? Answer: The low involvement consumer initially does not have a strong preference for one brand over another; he or she instead acts on the basis of limited knowledge and then forms an evaluation only after the fact. The possibility that consumers simply don’t care enough about many decisions to carefully assemble a set of product beliefs and then evaluate them is important, because it implies that all the concern about influencing beliefs and carefully communicating information about product attributes may be largely wasted. Consumers aren’t necessarily going to pay attention anyway; they are more likely to respond to simple stimulus-response connections when making purchase decisions. For example, a consumer choosing among paper towels might remember that “Bounty is the quicker picker-upper” rather than bothering systematically to compare all the brands on the shelf. For marketers, the ironic silver lining to this low-involvement cloud is that under these conditions consumers are not motivated to process a lot of complex brand-related information. Instead, they will be swayed by principles of behavioural learning, such as the simple responses caused by conditioned brand names, point-of-purchase displays, and so on. This results in what we might call the involvement paradox: the less important the product is to consumers, the more important are many of the marketing stimuli (e.g., packages, jingles) that must be devised to market it. Type: ES Page Ref: 186-187 Skill: Application Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 46) Describe what is meant by the “experiential hierarchy of effects.” Answer: According to the experiential hierarchy of effects, consumers act on the basis of their emotional reactions. This perspective highlights the idea that attitudes can be strongly influenced by product attributes irrelevant to the actual product quality, such as package design and colour, and by consumers’ reactions toward accompanying stimuli, such as advertising and even the brand name. Resulting attitudes will be affected by consumers’ hedonic motivations, such as how the product makes them feel or how much fun it will provide. Type: ES Page Ref: 187 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 47) List some of the types of feelings that can be generated in commercials. Answer: Specific types of feelings that can be generated by an ad include the following: ∙ Upbeat feelings—amused, delighted, playful ∙ Warm feelings—affectionate, contemplative, hopeful ∙ Negative feelings—critical, defiant, offended Type: ES Page Ref: 188 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-03 Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. 48) Which of the following statements displace the attempt to form an attitude through instrumental conditioning?
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 189 Skill: Application Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 49) Molson’s Ale depicts one male getting turned down for a date because an attractive female notices that he drinks a brand that is NOT Molson. Shortly after, she accepts a date from a male drinking Molson beer. Molson is trying to get consumers to:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Application Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 50) How strongly consumers hold an attitude toward an object is usually related to:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 51) A person may eat Snickers candy bars because this is the brand that all his friends eat and he doesn’t want to upset his friends. This would be an example of which kind of attitude involvement, based on degree of commitment?
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Application Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 52) When consumers change their behaviour or form attitudes intended to increase their similarity to another person or to a group, the level of commitment to that attitude is said to result from:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 53) Roger was really angry years ago when Coca-Cola attempted to switch from its older formula to New Coke. He wrote letters to Coca-Cola, talked to friends, called the local bottler, attempted to hoard “old Coke,” and complained to the local grocery store manager. In this example, which level of commitment is being displayed?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Application Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 54) All consumers commit to an attitude similarly, once the commitment is made. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 189 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 55) Describe the three levels of involvement affecting consumer commitment to an attitude. Answer: Compliance: At the lowest level of involvement, compliance, an attitude is formed because it helps gain rewards or avoid punishments from others. This attitude is very superficial; it is likely to change when the person’s behaviour is no longer monitored by others or when another option becomes available. A person may drink Pepsi because this is the brand that all of his friends drink and he doesn’t want to rock the boat. Identification: A process of identification occurs when attitudes are formed so that the consumer will then feel similar to another person or group. Advertising that depicts the social consequences of choosing some products over others is relying on the tendency of consumers to imitate the behaviour of desirable models. Internalization: At a high level of involvement, deep-seated attitudes are internalized and become part of the person’s value system. These attitudes are very difficult to change because they are so important to the individual. Type: ES Page Ref: 190 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 56) How strongly or weakly a consumer is committed to a specific attitude relates to the level of involvement she has with the attitude object. Describe the strength of commitment involved in each of the levels. Answer: Compliance: At the lowest level of involvement is compliance, an attitude formed because it helps in gaining rewards or avoiding punishment from others. This attitude is very superficial. It is likely to change when the person’s behaviour is no longer monitored by others or when another option becomes available. Identification: A process of identification occurs when attitudes are formed to be similar to another person or group. Advertising that depicts the social consequences of choosing some products over others is relying on the tendency of consumers to imitate the behaviour of desirable models. Internalization: At a high level of involvement, deep-seated attitudes are internalized and become part of the person’s value system. These attitudes are very hard to change. Type: ES Page Ref: 190 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-04 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. 57) Harmonious feelings among your thoughts, feelings, and behaviours is the underlying principle of:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 58) Cecilia has just purchased a new Jetta for $25000 and is told that she has received a “super deal.” A few days later she is surfing the Internet and comes across the same Jetta for $2000 less from a dealership only 100 miles away. Chances are that she will fairly quickly experience variables put forth by the theory of:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 59) In an experiment, two groups were asked to drink the same brand of fruit juice. One group was simply asked politely to try the drink. The second group was tricked into drinking the juice. Suppose that, on average, the second group liked the juice more than the first. How could the theory of cognitive dissonance be used to explain these results?
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 190 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 60) One way we maintain cognitive consistency is by inferring that we must have liked a product (have a positive attitude) because we bought it. This is a key feature of which theory?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 191-192 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 61) Sally considered herself to be relatively liberal in her political and social views. Her best friend introduced her to an environmental activist group. At the first meeting she attended, Sally agreed with everything that was presented and decided to join at the second meeting. At the second meeting, however, a group member presented an argument that Sally thought was “extreme.” Sally later told her friend that she could never join this group because their ideas were “crazy.” Which theory would best explain Sally’s change of attitude?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 192 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 62) In the ABC model of attitudes, is it possible to have a hierarchy that begins with behaviour? Why?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 191-192 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 63) After an automobile purchase, there is a good chance that buyers will come across some information (better price somewhere; competitor superiority) that will conflict with their purchase. Knowing this, marketers should:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 191 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 64) Rather than selling someone on the price of a $150000 Mercedes Benz right off the bat, marketers find that getting agreement on a variable like colour or styling first helps. This relates to the ________ technique.
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 192 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 65) We grant a certain latitude toward acceptance or rejection of new ideas about an object for which we already hold an opinion. The tendency to characterize ideas falling in the area of rejection as farther from our position than they actually are results in a(n) ________ effect.
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 192 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 66) A well-known actor is used in an ad to create a positive sentiment for a newly-launched innovative moisturizing cream. This is an example of the marketing application of which theory?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 194 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 67) Which of the following statements about balance theory is correct?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 193 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 68) According to the balance theory of attitudes, one element is seen somehow as belonging to or being part of another element in a(n):
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 193 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 69) According to the balance theory of attitudes, when two elements are linked because someone has expressed a preference, either positive or negative, for the third, a(n) ________ exists.
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 193 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 70) Mary has always had a good relationship with her mother. At the university, she met a friend whom she grew very fond of. Mary brought her new friend home to visit her family. Mary’s mother really disliked her new friend. According to the balance theory, what will Mary be motivated to do?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 193 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 71) When celebrity endorser Cybill Shepherd confessed that she did not eat red meat, even though she had been doing promotions for the beef industry, she was replaced as an endorser. According to balance theory, this endorsement backfired because:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 194-195 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 72) It is impossible for a person to hold two contradictory attitudes toward the same object. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 190 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 73) Some workers calling to raise money for a charity will purposely ask for more money than the person on the phone is willing to give. They then ask for the lower, but normal, contribution. The charity workers are attempting to create cognitive dissonance to their own advantage. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 192 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 74) Andy Wilcox was running for mayor. His campaign manager asked people to put a small pro-Wilcox sign in their yard. Later the manager called the same people and asked if a larger sign could be placed in their yards. He was seldom turned down. This is an example of the foot-in-the-door technique. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 192 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 75) Morris is considering joining the Marine Corps. However, he knows the corps has changed since his father joined. The participation of women in the Marine Corps is a new idea that Morris will have to think about. He realizes that to join the corps he will have to accept this idea. Morris’s situation is an example of social judgment theory in action. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 192 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 76) In balance theory, a unit relation occurs when two elements of a triad are linked because a person has expressed a preference (or dislike) for the third. Answer: FALSE Type: TF Page Ref: 193 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 77) What is cognitive dissonance? Answer: The theory of cognitive dissonance states that when a person is confronted with inconsistencies among his or her own attitudes or behaviours, he or she will take some action to resolve this unpleasant psychological state or “dissonance.” The theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce the negative feelings caused by dissonance by making things fit with one another. This can be done, for example, by changing the attitude or modifying behaviour. The theory has important ramifications for attitudes, since people are often confronted by situations in which there is some conflict between their attitudes and behaviours. Type: ES Page Ref: 190 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 78) Explain and illustrate the concept of post-purchase dissonance with an example. Answer: Examples may vary. Dissonance theory can help to explain why evaluations of a product tend to increase after it has been purchased. Post-purchase dissonance can occur in situations where the consumer has a choice between more than one favourable alternative. For example, if the consumer narrows down her search for a new computer to two key alternatives and then selects one, dissonance can arise because the alternative she gave up (what researchers call the “forgone option”) had many desirable qualities. This is because the cognition “that computer had some really cool options” and the behaviour “I picked something else instead” are inconsistent. This can lead to feelings of dissonance, which the consumer is motivated to resolve. One way this can be done is by reconfirming that she made the right purchase after all, focusing on desirable qualities of the chosen option and actually liking it more after it has been selected. Type: ES Page Ref: 190-191 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 79) Describe the foot-in-the-door technique and give a brief example. Answer: The foot-in-the-door technique is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to comply with a smaller request. The name for this technique comes from the practice of door-to-door selling, wherein a salesperson was taught to plant his or her foot in a door so that the prospect could not slam it shut. A good salesperson knows that he or she is more likely to get an order if the customer can be persuaded to open the door and talk. By agreeing to do so, the customer has established a willingness to listen to the salesperson. Placing an order is consistent with this self-perception. This technique is especially useful for inducing consumers to answer surveys or to donate money to charity. Such factors as the time lag between the first and second requests, the similarity between the two requests, and whether the same person makes both requests have been found to influence the effectiveness of this technique. Type: ES Page Ref: 192 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 80) Karen is in favour of designated driver systems. When she makes plans to go out with friends and sees a commercial for a company that will drive your car home for you she is likely to respond favourably. According to social judgement theory, what is happening here? Answer: Social judgment theory assumes that people assimilate new information about attitude objects in the light of what they already know or feel. The initial attitude acts as a frame of reference, and new information is categorized in terms of this existing standard. Just as our decision that a box is heavy depends in part on other boxes we have lifted, we develop a subjective standard when making judgments about attitude objects. One important aspect of the theory is the notion that people differ in terms of the information they will find acceptable or unacceptable. They form latitudes of acceptance and rejection around an attitude standard. Ideas that fall within a latitude will be favourably received, while those falling outside this zone will not. For example, consider a consumer who has a favourable attitude toward the use of designated drivers. He is likely to be receptive to communications urging him to play this role before heading out for an evening on the town. If he were opposed to this practice, these messages would probably not be considered. On the one hand, messages that fall within the latitude of acceptance tend to be seen as more consistent with our own position than they actually are. This process is called an assimilation effect. On the other hand, messages falling in the latitude of rejection tend to be seen as even farther from our own position than they actually are, resulting in a contrast effect. Type: ES Page Ref: 192 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 81) Explain how balance theory works. Answer: Balance theory considers relations among elements a person might perceive as belonging together. This perspective involves relations (always from the perceiver’s subjective point of view) among three elements, so the resulting attitude structures are called triads. Each triad contains (1) a person and his or her perceptions of (2) an attitude object and (3) some other person or object. These perceptions can be either positive or negative. More importantly, people alter these perceptions to make relations among them consistent. The theory specifies that people desire relations among elements in a triad to be harmonious, or balanced. If they are not, a state of tension will result until somehow perceptions are changed and balance is restored. Type: ES Page Ref: 193 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 82) How might celebrities be utilized according to balance theory? Answer: Balance theory is useful in accounting for the widespread use of celebrities to endorse products. In cases where a triad is not fully formed (e.g., one involving perceptions about a new product or one about which the consumer does not yet have a well-defined attitude), the marketer can create a positive sentiment relation between the consumer and the product by depicting a positive unit relation between the product and a well-known personality. In other cases, behaviours are discouraged when admired people argue against them, as is the goal when athletes appear in public service advertisements against drinking and driving. Type: ES Page Ref: 194 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 83) Using balance theory, explain why a book publisher might want to use Donald Trump as a television “pitchman” for a new book about a previously unknown concept concerning deal financing. Answer: According to balance theory, three elements would be involved: potential buyers, Donald Trump, and the book. These three elements must be in balance. If they are not, people will alter perceptions to make relations among them consistent. Therefore, if Donald Trump is a positive force (credible and influential) and the knowledge/belief among potential buyers in the new concept is negative or doubtful, publishers hope that his positive force will triumph and win over the negative force, resulting in book purchases. Type: ES Page Ref: 194 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 84) What is cognitive dissonance? Explain how it is relevant in a marketing context. Answer: The theory of cognitive dissonance states that when a person is confronted with inconsistencies among his or her own attitudes or behaviours, he or she will take some action to resolve this unpleasant psychological state or “dissonance.” The theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce the negative feelings caused by dissonance by making things fit with one another. This can be done, for example, by changing the attitude or modifying behaviour. The theory has important ramifications for attitudes, since people are often confronted by situations in which there is some conflict between their attitudes and behaviours. A cognitive element can be something people believe about themselves, behaviours they perform, or observations about their surroundings. For example, the two belief statements “I know smoking cigarettes causes cancer” and “I smoke cigarettes” are dissonant with one another. This psychological inconsistency creates a feeling of discomfort that the smoker is motivated to reduce. Dissonance reduction can occur by eliminating, adding, or changing elements. For example, the person could stop smoking (eliminate) or remember Great-Aunt Sophie, who smoked until the day she died at age 90 (add). Dissonance theory can help to explain why evaluations of a product tend to increase after it has been purchased. Postpurchase dissonance can occur in situations where the consumer has a choice between more than one favourable alternative. For example, if the consumer narrows down her search for a new computer to two key alternatives and then selects one, dissonance can arise because the alternative she gave up (what researchers call the “forgone option”) had many desirable qualities. This is because the cognition “that computer had some really cool options” and the behaviour “I picked something else instead” are inconsistent. This can lead to feelings of dissonance, which the consumer is motivated to resolve. One way this can be done is by reconfirming that she made the right purchase after all, focusing on desirable qualities of the chosen option and actually liking it more after it has been selected. Type: ES Page Ref: 190 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 85) Compare the “foot-in-the-door” technique with “door-in-the-face” technique. Assume that a politician is running for a political office and give an example of the utilization of both techniques in her campaign. Answer: The foot-in-the-door technique is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to comply with a smaller request. The name for this technique comes from the practice of door-to-door selling, wherein a salesperson was taught to plant his or her foot in a door so that the prospect could not slam it shut. A good salesperson knows that he or she is more likely to get an order if the customer can be persuaded to open the door and talk. By agreeing to do so, the customer has established a willingness to listen to the salesperson. The door-in-the-face technique is used when a person is first asked a very large request (a request that is usually refused) and then is asked to do something smaller. In the latter case, people tend to go along with the smaller request, possibly because they feel guilty about denying the larger one. In a campaign setting, asking someone to do a brief five-minute survey (to which they comply), and then asking them to canvass for the candidate, is an example of the foot-in-the-door technique. On the other hand, asking someone to donate 300 volunteer hours to the campaign (to which they say no), and then asking them to donate 5 hours to the campaign, is an example of the door-in-the-face technique. Type: ES Page Ref: 192 Skill: Application Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 86) Identify the elements of balance theory. Discuss possible interaction effects between unit relation and sentiment relation, and how they can be applied to marketing strategy. Answer: The elements of a triad in balance theory are a person, his/her perception of an attitude object, and some other person or object. These perceptions can be either positive or negative. The theory specifies that people desire relations among elements in a triad to be harmonious, or balanced. If they are not, a state of tension will result. People will somehow alter these perceptions to make them consistent and restore balance. Elements can be perceived as belonging together in one of two ways: – Unit relation in which one element is seen as somehow belonging to or being part of another element – Sentiment relation in which two elements are linked because one has expressed a preference (or dislike) for the third Applications to marketing strategy: – Forming a perception of a unit relation between consumers and usage of a product to create the opportunity for developing new sentiment relations – Creating a sentiment relation between consumers and products by depicting unit relations between product and celebrity endorsers Type: ES Page Ref: 193-194 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-05 Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. 87) Many attempts to correlate reported attitude toward something with actual behaviour have found:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 200 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 88) The base premise of the Fishbein model is that a consumer’s overall attitude about a brand is determined by a weighted average calculation of the importance of each of their ________ for each product attribute.
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 197 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 89) The ________ implies that a consumer’s attitude toward a product can be predicted by identifying the specific beliefs held about the several product attributes and combining them into one overall measure of the consumer’s attitude.
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 196 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 90) Kenneth is using a multi-attribute model to make a decision on which college to attend. Scholarly reputation, friendliness of students, and the adequacy of the college placement division are the most important areas that Kenneth is using to measure his list of colleges. Which of the following elements is Kenneth primarily using in his multi-attribute model to make his decision?
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 196 Skill: Application Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 91) Samantha is using a multi-attribute model to make a decision on which college to attend. She has decided that scholarly reputation is more important than whether the college has a good sports program. Which of the following elements is Samantha primarily using in her multi-attribute model to make her decision?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 196 Skill: Application Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 92) The three components of the Fishbein model are:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 197 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 93) Ben wanted to use the Fishbein model to measure attitudes toward a professional hockey team. What would Ben have to do first to use this model?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 197 Skill: Application Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 94) Multi-attribute attitude models specify three elements, which are:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 197 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 95) Which of the following is a strategic application of multi-attribute models?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 198-199 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 96) The extended Fishbein multi-attribute model recognizes a distinction between behavioural intentions and actual behaviour. This is important because:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 200 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 97) A social pressure element was added to the extended Fishbein model because:
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 200 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 98) Despite improvements to the Fishbein model there still exist obstacles to predicting behaviour using this model. Which of the following is one of those obstacles?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 201 Skill: Application Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 99) A research firm was using Fishbein’s model to measure attitudes, but found that the predictions of the model were insufficient to explain the behaviour of its client’s customers. The firm decided to try the extended Fishbein model; what did they need to add to their original research?
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 201 Skill: Application Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 100) Several of the following cultural roadblocks diminish the universality of the theory of reasoned action. Which of the following statements depicts one of those roadblocks?
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 101) The attitude accessibility perspective suggests that:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 201 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 102) One of the aspects of the theory of reasoned action looks at the attitude toward buying, focusing on the perceived consequences of a purchase. It turns out that:
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 201 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 103) Fred is trying to understand why his customers feel the way they do about the speakers he sells. He first identifies what speaker attributes are important to his customers, and then analyzes the extent to which his customers believe his speakers contain those attributes. Finally, he identifies the relative importance of each attribute. Fred is utilizing a multi-attribute attitude model. Answer: TRUE Type: TF Page Ref: 196 Skill: Application Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 104) What type of model is the Fishbein model, and what three components does it measure? Answer: The Fishbein model is the most influential multi-attribute model, named after its primary developer. The model measures three components of attitude:
Type: ES Page Ref: 197 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 105) What alterations have been made to the original Fishbein model and why? Answer: The original Fishbein model, which focused on measuring a consumer’s attitude toward a product, has been extended in several ways to improve its predictive ability. An improved version is called the theory of reasoned action. This model contains several important additions to the original, and although the model is still not perfect, its ability to predict relevant behaviour is better. Many factors might interfere with actual behaviour, even if the consumer has sincere intentions. He or she might save up with the intention of buying a new smartphone. In the interim, though, any number of things–losing a job, getting mugged on the way to the store, or arriving at the store to find that the desired model is out of stock–could happen. It is not surprising, then, that in some instances past purchase behaviour has been found to be a better predictor of future behaviour than is a consumer’s behavioural intention. The theory of reasoned action aims to measure behavioural intentions, recognizing that certain uncontrollable factors inhibit prediction of actual behaviour. For example, the theory acknowledges the power of other people in influencing behaviour. The model now also measures attitude toward the act of buying (Aact) rather than only the attitude toward the product itself. However, despite improvements to the Fishbein model, problems arise when it is misapplied. In many cases the model is applied in ways for which it was not intended or where certain assumptions about human behaviour may not be warranted. Type: ES Page Ref: 199-201 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 106) Outline three obstacles to predicting behaviour utilizing the theory of reasoned action. Answer: Despite improvements to the Fishbein model, problems arise when it is misapplied. In many cases, the model is applied in ways for which it was not intended or where certain assumptions about human behaviour may not be warranted. Other obstacles to predicting behaviour are as follows: ∙ The model was developed to deal with actual behaviour (e.g., taking a diet pill), not with the outcomes of behaviour (e.g., losing weight) that are instead assessed in some studies. ∙ Some outcomes are beyond the consumer’s control, such as when the purchase requires the cooperation of other people. For instance, consumers might want to get a mortgage, but this intention will be worthless if they cannot find a banker to give them one. ∙ The basic assumption that behaviour is intentional may be invalid in a variety of cases, including those involving impulsive acts, sudden changes in one’s situation, novelty-seeking, or even simple repeat buying. One study found that such unexpected events as having guests, changes in the weather, or reading articles about the healthfulness of certain foods exerted a significant effect on actual behaviours. ∙ Measures of attitude often do not really correspond to the behaviour they are supposed to predict, either in terms of the Ao or when the act will occur. One common problem is a difference in the level of abstraction employed. For example, knowing a person’s attitude toward the environment may not predict whether he or she will purchase an electric car. It is very important to match the level of specificity between the attitude and the behavioural intention. ∙ A similar problem relates to the time frame of the attitude measure. In general, the longer the time between the attitude measurement and the behaviour it is supposed to assess, the weaker the relationship will be. For example, predictability would improve markedly by asking consumers about the likelihood of buying a house in the next week as opposed to within the next five years. ∙ Attitudes formed by direct, personal experience with an Ao are stronger and more predictive of behaviour than those formed indirectly, such as through advertising. According to the attitude accessibility perspective, behaviour is a function of the person’s immediate perceptions of the Ao in the context of the situation in which it is encountered. An attitude will guide the evaluation of the object, but only if it is activated from memory when the object is observed. These findings underscore the importance of strategies that induce trial (by widespread product sampling to encourage the consumer to try the product at home, by taste tests, test drives, etc.) as well as those that maximize exposure to marketing communications. The theory of reasoned action has been applied primarily in Western settings. Certain assumptions inherent in the model may not necessarily apply to consumers from other cultures. Several of the following cultural roadblocks diminish the universality of the theory of reasoned action: ∙ The model was developed to predict the performance of any voluntary act. Across cultures, however, many consumer activities, ranging from taking exams and entering military service to receiving an inoculation or choosing a marriage partner, are not necessarily voluntary. ∙ The relative impact of subjective norms may vary across cultures. For example, Asian cultures tend to value conformity and face-saving, so it is possible that subjective norms involving the anticipated reactions of others to the choice will have an even greater impact on behaviour for many Asian consumers. Indeed, a recent study conducted among voters in Singapore was able to predict voting for political candidates from their voting intentions, which in turn were influenced by such factors as voters’ attitudes toward the candidate, attitudes toward the political party, and subjective norms–which in Singapore included an emphasis on harmonious and close ties among members of the society. ∙ The model measures behavioural intentions and thus presupposes that consumers are actively thinking ahead and planning future behaviours. The intention concept assumes that consumers have a linear time sense (i.e., that they think in terms of past, present, and future). This perspective on time is not held by all cultures. Type: ES Page Ref: 201-202 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 107) Describe the three elements most multi-attribute models specify. Answer: 1. Attributes are characteristics of the Ao. Most models assume that the relevant characteristics can be identified; that is, the researcher can include those attributes that consumers take into consideration when evaluating the Ao. For example, degree of freshness of produce is an attribute of a grocery store.
Type: ES Page Ref: 196-197 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 108) Why have multi-attribute attitude models become so popular among marketing researchers? What three elements are specified in such models? Answer: A simple response from a consumer does not always give enough information about why a consumer feels a certain way about a product nor about what marketers can do to change the consumer’s attitude. The models assume that a consumer’s attitude or evaluation of an attitude object will depend upon the beliefs she or he has about several attributes of the object. The use of a multi-attribute model implies that an attitude toward a product or brand can be predicted by identifying these specific beliefs and combining them in an appropriate manner to derive a better measure of the consumer’s overall attitude. Basic multi-attribute attitude models specify three elements: – Attributes are characteristics of the attitude object. Most models assume that the relevant characteristics can be identified; that is, the researcher can include those attributes that consumers take into account when they are evaluating the attitude object. – Beliefs are cognitions about the specific attitude object. A belief measure assesses the extent to which the consumer perceives that a brand has a particular attribute. – Importance weights reflect the relative priority of an attribute to the consumer. Some attributes are more important than others to the consumer. These weights are likely to differ across consumers. Type: ES Page Ref: 195-197 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 109) Both the Fishbein model and the extended Fishbein model attempt to measure the influence of attitudes. What was the flaw in the original model and what was added in the extended model to correct this flaw? Answer: The original Fishbein model attempted to measure attitudes, but knowing a customer’s attitude does not always allow a useful prediction of his or her actual behaviour. To translate intentions created by attitudes to actual behaviours required the addition of other tangential attitudes and outside influences. The following effects were included in the extended Fishbein model, also knowns as the theory of reasoned action: Social pressure—The theory of reasoned action acknowledges that sometimes we are influenced more by opinions of others than by our own personal preferences. Hence, the element of a subjective norm was added to the model: the effects of what we believe other people think we should do. This depends, in part, upon how strongly we believe others think a specific action should be taken, and by our willingness to comply with their pressure. Attitude toward the act of buying—It turns out that knowing how consumers feel about the act of buying may be a better predictor than knowing their attitude toward the product itself. What are the consequences of making the purchase or using the product? Type: ES Page Ref: 197-201 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 110) Although the theory of reasoned action is considered an improvement over the original Fishbein model, there are still obstacles to predicting behaviour. What are these obstacles? Answer: Despite the modifications and improvements in the predictions of consumer behaviour, there are still obstacles in predicting behaviour. For instance: – The model was developed to deal with actual behaviour (e.g. taking a diet pill), not with the outcomes of behaviour (e.g. losing weight). – Some outcomes are beyond the consumer’s control, such as not getting financing for a house. – These models assume that behaviour is intentional, and thus do not allow for impulsive acts. – Measures of attitude often do not correspond to the behaviour they are supposed to predict. – There can be a problem with the time an attitude measurement was taken. The longer the time between the attitude measurement and the behaviour it is supposed to assess, the weaker the relationship will be. – According to the attitude accessibility perspective, behaviour is a function of the person’s immediate perceptions of the attitude object in the context of the situation in which it is encountered. An attitude will guide the evaluation of the object, but only if it is activated from memory when the object is observed. Type: ES Page Ref: 201-202 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-06 Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude towards a product or brand. 111) When the marketer communicates information about what people commonly do, a ________ is being communicated.
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 112) When the marketer communicates information about what others believe the consumer should do, a(n) ________ is being communicated.
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 113) The City of Calgary airs an advertisement showing other members of the community recycling their bottles and cans. This is an example of using a(n)________ to influence attitudes and behaviour.
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 114) The City of Toronto creates a series of radio spots that communicate the social expectation that city residents should compost their organic household waste. This is an example of using a(n)________ to influence attitudes and behaviour.
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 115) Shirley tends to keep her room tidy, a task her mother requests of her. This is a response to what?
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 116) A hotel leaves the message: “JOIN YOUR FELLOW GUESTS IN HELPING TO SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT” in the bathrooms of their guest rooms. This is an example of using a(n):
Answer: B Type: MC Page Ref: 203 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 117) A descriptive norm:
Answer: A Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 118) An injunctive norm:
Answer: C Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 119) The “Rock the Vote” campaign used musicians and rock stars to communicate that voting is something that we all should be doing. This is an example of using a(n):
Answer: D Type: MC Page Ref: 202 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 120) Define a descriptive norm. Give an example. Answer: Examples may vary. Robert Cialdini and his colleagues highlight that norms are best divided into two categories, the first being descriptive norms, which are defined as norms that convey information regarding what other people commonly do. For example, an advertisement communicating that 85% of residents are currently recycling is communicating a descriptive norm. Type: ES Page Ref: 202-203 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 121) Define an injunctive norm. Give a short example. Answer: Examples may vary. The second classification Cialdini gives is injunctive norms, which are defined as norms that convey information regarding what is commonly approved and disapproved of by others. An advertisement highlighting that others approve of recycling would convey an injunctive norm. Both descriptive and injunctive norms can be powerful influencers on consumer attitudes and behaviour. Communicating that others are engaging in a particular activity can increase compliance with that behaviour. This has been shown for consumption behaviours such as not littering, reducing energy consumption, and voting. One strategy that has been used to harness the power of descriptive norms and ensure they translate into positive attitudes and behaviours is to give consumers feedback on how they are performing relative to the descriptive norm. For example, Opower is a privately held software-as-a-service company that partners with utility providers to encourage consumers to conserve household energy. Opower’s software creates individualized Home Energy Reports that analyze consumers’ energy use and compares this to what others are doing. Type: ES Page Ref: 202-203 Skill: Application Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. 122) Compare and contrast descriptive norms and injunctive norms. Give an example of how each might be used in a city-wide campaign encouraging consumers to recycle. Answer: Examples may vary. Descriptive norms are defined as norms that convey information regarding what other people commonly do. Injunctive norms are defined as norms that convey information regarding what is commonly approved and disapproved of by others. For example, an advertisement communicating that 85% of residents are currently recycling is communicating a descriptive norm. An advertisement highlighting that others approve of recycling would convey an injunctive norm. Type: ES Page Ref: 202 Skill: Concept Objective: L7-07 Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. |
