Chapter 5 Show Perception and Individual Decision Making I. Some basic concepts in perception II.������� Kelley's attribution theory ������� Consensus ������� Consistency ������� Distinctiveness III.������� Attribution biases ������� Fundamental attribution error ������� Actor-observer effect ������� Self-serving bias ������� Selective perception ������� Projection ������� Stereotyping ������� Halo effect ������� Self-fulfilling prophecy IV. Individual decision making ������� Decision making models Heuristics and biases in judgment and decision making I. Some basic concepts in perception Perceiver, target, situation � Disposition:� a quality or trait that distinguishes one person or group from another. � Attribution:� an inference about the cause of a person�s action.� (perceived cause) � Internal attribution:� an inference that a person�s behavior is caused by a personal disposition � External attribution:� an inference that a person�s behavior is caused by an environmental or situational factor II.������� Kelley's attribution theory ������� Consensus:� the extent to which others react in the same ������� ������� manner to some stimulus or event as the person we � ������� are considering ������� Consistency:� the extent to which the person reacts to this ������� stimulus or event in the same way on other occasions ������� Distinctiveness:� the extent to which the person reacts in � ������� the same manner to other, different stimuli or events How to make attributions? Consensus������� Consistency������� Distinctiveness�� Attribution����� � ����� � High����� ������� � High������� � High� ------->�� External � Low������ ������� � High������� � Low�� ------->�� Internal III.������� Attribution biases � Fundamental attribution error:� the tendency to explain others' actions in terms of dispositional (internal) rather than situational (external) causes. � Actor-observer effect:� the tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes but that of others to internal ones. � Self-serving bias:� the tendency to take credit for positive behaviors but to blame negative ones on external causes. � Selective perception:� people selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. � Projection:� attributing one's own characteristics to other people. � Stereotyping:� judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs � Halo effect:� drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic. � Self-fulfilling prophecy:� a two-phase process (1) an individual defines a situation incorrectly; (2) her subsequent actions (prompted by the definition) cause the originally incorrect conception to become reality IV.������� Individual Decision Making ������� A.������� Decision making models ������� � 1)������� The optimizing model ������� Assumptions: rationality ������� ������� People are rational, goal-oriented; they have clear ������� and constant preferences;� all options are known, and final choice will maximize the outcome ������� 6 steps:������� Ascertain the need for a decision ��������������� ������� Identify the decision criteria ��������������� ������� Allocate weights to the criteria ��������������� ������� Develop the alternatives ��������������� ������� Evaluate the alternatives ��������������� ������� Select the best alternative ������� � 2)������� The satisficing model ������� Assumption:� bounded rationality ������� ������� People make decisions by constructing simplified ������� models that extract the essential features from problems ������� without capturing all their complexity. B.� Heuristics and biases in decision making ������� (Kahnman & Tversky, 1970s--) � 1)������� Representativeness heuristic:� the more similar an ������� ������� individual is to a typical members of a given group, ���� ������� the more likely he or she is to belong to that group.� ��� ������� Generally, it refers to the phenomenon that � ������� probabilities are evaluated by the degree to which A � ������� is the representative of B, i.e., by the degree to ������� ������� which A resembles B. � 2)������� Availability:� a judgmental heuristic in which people ��� ������� assess the frequency of a class or the probability of an ������� event by the ease with which instances or occurrences can ������� be brought to mind. � 3)������� Anchoring:� different starting points yield different ������� estimates, which are biased toward the initial value.� ��� ������� It occurs when (a) there is a reference point or (b)� ������� estimate is based on the result of some incomplete ���� ������� computation. 4) Framing:� the way questions are framed influences decisions 5) Nonrational escalation of commitment: refers to the tendency to bias decisions by one�s past actions, particularly after receiving negative feedback about such actions. Understanding Behavior in Escalation SituationsBarry Staw and Jerry Ross Escalation of commitment ��������� ��������� The sunk cost effect Psychology of entrapment�� ��������� The too-much-invested-to-quit syndrome Determinants Project determinants: � whether a setback is judged to be due to a permanent or temporary problem � whether further investment is likely to b efficacious � how large a goal or payoff may result from continued investment � future expenditures or costs necessary to achieve a project�s payoff � the number of times previous commitments have failed to yield returns Psychological determinants: � framing effects � self-justification biases � confirmation trap Social determinants: � face-saving � external binding (attribution bias) Organizational determinants: � institutional inertia � politics � organizational image or identity What do we call it when we judge someone on the basis of our perception a stereotyping B categorizing C halo effect D prototyping?The correct answer is C) stereotyping.
Is judging or typical thinking on the basis of one's perception of the group?Answer and Explanation: The answer is "B", stereotyping could be defined as judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which the person belongs.
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