Judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs

Chapter 5

Perception and Individual Decision Making

I.                 Some basic concepts in perception

II.������� Kelley's attribution theory

������� Consensus

������� Consistency

������� Distinctiveness

III.������� Attribution biases

������� Fundamental attribution error

������� Actor-observer effect

������� Self-serving bias

������� Selective perception

������� Projection

������� Stereotyping

������� Halo effect

������� Self-fulfilling prophecy

IV.         Individual decision making

������� Decision making models

Heuristics and biases in judgment and decision making

I.                 Some basic concepts in perception

Perceiver, target, situation

       Disposition:a quality or trait that distinguishes one person or group from another.

       Attribution:an inference about the cause of a person�s action.(perceived cause)

       Internal attribution:an inference that a person�s behavior is caused by a personal disposition

      External attribution:an inference that a person�s behavior is caused by an environmental or situational factor

II.������� Kelley's attribution theory

������� Consensus:the extent to which others react in the same

������� ������� manner to some stimulus or event as the person we ������� are considering

������� Consistency:the extent to which the person reacts to this ������� stimulus or event in the same way on other occasions

������� Distinctiveness:the extent to which the person reacts in ������� the same manner to other, different stimuli or events

How to make attributions?

Consensus������� Consistency������� Distinctiveness�� Attribution����� �����

High����� ������� High������� High------->�� External

Low������ ������� High������� Low�� ------->�� Internal

III.������� Attribution biases

       Fundamental attribution error:the tendency to explain others' actions in terms of dispositional (internal) rather than situational (external) causes.

       Actor-observer effect:the tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes but that of others to internal ones.

       Self-serving bias:the tendency to take credit for positive behaviors but to blame negative ones on external causes.

       Selective perception:people selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

       Projection:attributing one's own characteristics to other people.

       Stereotyping:judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs

       Halo effect:drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.

       Self-fulfilling prophecy:a two-phase process

(1) an individual defines a situation incorrectly;

(2) her subsequent actions (prompted by the definition) cause the originally incorrect conception to become reality

IV.������� Individual Decision Making

������� A.������� Decision making models

������� 1)������� The optimizing model

������� Assumptions: rationality

������� ������� People are rational, goal-oriented; they have clear ������� and constant preferences;all options are known, and final choice will maximize the outcome

������� 6 steps:������� Ascertain the need for a decision

��������������� ������� Identify the decision criteria

��������������� ������� Allocate weights to the criteria

��������������� ������� Develop the alternatives

��������������� ������� Evaluate the alternatives

��������������� ������� Select the best alternative

������� 2)������� The satisficing model

������� Assumption:bounded rationality

������� ������� People make decisions by constructing simplified ������� models that extract the essential features from problems ������� without capturing all their complexity.

B.Heuristics and biases in decision making

������� (Kahnman & Tversky, 1970s--)

1)������� Representativeness heuristic:the more similar an ������� ������� individual is to a typical members of a given group, ���� ������� the more likely he or she is to belong to that group.��� ������� Generally, it refers to the phenomenon that ������� probabilities are evaluated by the degree to which A ������� is the representative of B, i.e., by the degree to ������� ������� which A resembles B.

2)������� Availability:a judgmental heuristic in which people ��� ������� assess the frequency of a class or the probability of an ������� event by the ease with which instances or occurrences can ������� be brought to mind.

3)������� Anchoring:different starting points yield different ������� estimates, which are biased toward the initial value.��� ������� It occurs when (a) there is a reference point or (b)������� estimate is based on the result of some incomplete ���� ������� computation.

4)        Framing:the way questions are framed influences decisions

5)       Nonrational escalation of commitment: refers to the tendency to bias decisions by one�s past actions, particularly after receiving negative feedback about such actions.

Understanding Behavior in Escalation Situations

Barry Staw and Jerry Ross

Escalation of commitment ��������� ��������� The sunk cost effect

Psychology of entrapment�� ��������� The too-much-invested-to-quit syndrome

Determinants

Project determinants:

        whether a setback is judged to be due to a permanent or temporary problem

        whether further investment is likely to b efficacious

        how large a goal or payoff may result from continued investment

        future expenditures or costs necessary to achieve a project�s payoff

        the number of times previous commitments have failed to yield returns

Psychological determinants:

        framing effects

        self-justification biases

        confirmation trap

Social determinants:

        face-saving

        external binding (attribution bias)

Organizational determinants:

        institutional inertia

        politics

        organizational image or identity

What do we call it when we judge someone on the basis of our perception a stereotyping B categorizing C halo effect D prototyping?

The correct answer is C) stereotyping.

Is judging or typical thinking on the basis of one's perception of the group?

Answer and Explanation: The answer is "B", stereotyping could be defined as judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which the person belongs.